In the 17th and 18th centuries, preformistic ideas were widely
held in embryology. Embryological preformists considered already-shaped
microscopic creatures of a given species were in ova or spermatozoa.
In their opinion, the only increase in size of these creatures
occurs in the developmental process.[5] These views were naive,
and subsequently, the preformistic conceptions in embryology
followed more direct observations.

The preformistic principle is still used, however, either
consciously or unconsciously in various spheres of biology.
The main point of this principle consists in recognizing that
the Creator had put structures into the living creatures primordially
which manifest themselves in a given manner. These structures
supposedly predetermine the course of various processes. Of
course, there are no concrete indications of such structures
in the Holy Scriptures. Thus, it would be interesting to analyze
how the principle of preformism is seen in some parts of immunology
and gerontology.

Antibody formation in an organism and the interrelation with
antigens is one of the most important immunological problems.
Antibodies are considered to be substances of an albuminous
nature. There are sites in their molecules which have highly
variable amino acid composition. Owing to these sites, the amount
of an antibody with distinct specificity, which is synthesized
in an organism, is rather great. One of the main tasks of theoretical
immunology was to explain how a corresponding specific antibody
is produced against every antigen.

The first elaborate theory of antibody formation was suggested
by Ehrlich in 1898.[7] This theory was preformistic, as a matter
of fact. Ehrlich supposed that there were primordially various
chemical groups of receptors on a cell surface. These structures
preexist, but are not synthesized under the influence of antigens.
Getting into an organism, an antigen, because of its chemical
affinity, combines with a definite receptor. Cells respond to
this combination by producing many more of the given receptors,
which in turn tear off from the cell surface and circulate in
the blood as specific antibodies.

During the first decades of the 20th century, many new antigens
were discovered. The preexistence in an organism of antibodies
against all the many possible antigens seemed incredible to
most immunologists. So-called instructive antibody formation
theories started to appear. In 1930, Breinl and Haurovitz suggested
their version of the instructive theory. They considered that
an antigen played a matrix role to ensure that unique amino
acid sequences were assembled in an antibody molecule.[7] Later,
in 1940, Pauling supported the instructive idea of antibodies
formation. He asserted that antigens served as a model from
which antibody molecules acquired specific configuration.

It would seem that the instructive theories answered the question
logically as to why corresponding antibodies were produced for
an antigen that got into an organism. Nevertheless, they failed
to explain many immunological phenomena. In particular, they
do not explain why antibodies keep on being produced in the
absence of an antigen and why the organism's own proteins usually
cause no antibodies to form.

Even more complete versions of the instructive theories didn't
satisfy the immunologists any better. In this connection, the
preformistic theories of antibody formation began to revive.
The main idea of this group of theories suggests that antibodies
against all possible antigens have somehow been synthesized
continuously. This group of theories is named the "selective
theory."

In 1955, Jerne[7] suggested a particular version of the selective
theory of antibody formation. He supposed that every cell able
to synthesize antibodies produces a wide variety of them. An
antigen which gets into an organism finds in this variety an
antibody appropriate to itself. An antigen-antibody complex
forms that starts up the production of the given antibodies
in a large amount. Thus, an antigen does not perform the role
of instructor, but one of selection or selector.

In 1964, Burnet published a more complete version of the selective
theory for antibody formation.[1] This theory states that all
lymphoid cells synthesize antibodies in the form of many clones.
Every cell clone originates from one cell which produces molecules
of only one antibody version. All of the individual clones together
are able to produce antibodies for all possible antigens. The
theory, suggested by Burnet, corresponded to many facts of immunology
and became universally accepted.

Burnet explained the diversity of synthesized antibodies both
by encodedness of this phenomenon in the sex cell genome and
by somatic mutations in the cells of lymphoid tissue.[1] It
is obvious that encodedness of antibody diversity in the genome
of sex cells fully reflects the principle of preformism. It
remains unclear, however, if somatic mutations in lymphoid cells
play a definite role in ensuring antibody diversity. The attempts
to evaluate quantitatively the contribution of somatic mutations
has not given an answer which has only one meaning.[4] Besides
this, one can likely use the preformistic principle in understanding
both the meaning and mechanism of somatic mutations in the lymphoid
cells.

There is a large number of aging theories in gerontology.
Gerontologists have not come to a common opinion about the reasons
for aging. On the other hand, Scripture contains a direct indication
of the maximum duration of human life. Man's maximum life span
was determined by God to be 120 years, according to one suggested
interpretation of Genesis 6:3. This value coincides in a surprising
way with the data of modern gerontology.

Having fixed the maximal age as 120 years, the Creator would
have to put into the human organism some mechanism that would
limit life's duration. Among the numerous aging theories, there
are some which consider such a mechanism. To be sure, authors
of these theories are usually not disposed to think that such
a mechanism was preestablished by the Creator. They connect
this mechanism with evolutionary processes in the living world.[2]

There is a theory about programming in the genome of somatic
cells for a limited number of cell divisions. It follows from
this theory that, having used the limit of divisions, the cells
grow old and perish. The entire organism inevitably dies. The
conclusion about the genetically determined limited number of
cell divisions was drawn from experiments with human fibroblasts.[3]
Some data contradict this theory. As it turned out, the limitation
in the number of cell divisions are caused not by a special
program in the cell genome, but by other factors.[6]

The possibility of a programming which leads to aging is also
considered in other aging theories. Such a theory was worked
out in detail by Dilman.[2] In his opinion, in the human organism,
there is a large biological clock which counts off the age according
to the appointed moment of the aging mechanism. This mechanism
is located in the hypothalamus which oversees the preservation
of constancy in the internal medium of the organism, its homeostasis.
The hypothalamus fulfills its regulatory operation by means
of the endocrine glands.

The aging mechanism starts when there is a constant increase
of the threshold sensitivity in the hypothalamus to the level
of hormones in blood. It results in an increase in circulating
hormone concentration. These increased levels of hormones cause
various forms of pathological states which Dilman called the
"normal" aging diseases. These diseases promote aging
and in the end lead to death.

The preformism principle is undoubtedly present in the selective
theories of antibodies formation. The authors of these theories
recognize pre-existence, preformation of synthesis mechanism
of many antibodies. These theories conform to the facts better
than the instructive theories which do not use the principle
of preformism. A subsequent analysis is necessary, as far as
the somatic mutations in the lymphoid cells are "causal,"
which are apparently necessary for synthesis of part of the
antibodies. The idea of preformism is also present in aging
theories that try to establish which structures in an organism
direct its aging processes.

The principle of preformism is universal; it is seen in all
biological disciplines. It is one of the methods by which the
Creator organized the processes of life. The specific ways in
which the performism principle is expressed are various. It
will take much work to reveal the mechanisms in the different
biological sciences. It is my opinion that a paramount task
of biological creationists is to study this matter.

1. [1] Burnet, F. M., Cellular Immunology, (Cambridge
   University press, 1969).
2. [2] Dilman, V. M., The Law of Deviation of Homeostasis
   and Diseases of Aging, (Boston, J. Wright PSV Inc., 1981),
   380 pp.
3. [3] Heyflick, L., The Limited In-vitro Lifetime of Human
   Diploid Cell Strain, (Exp. Cell. Res., 1965, 37, 3) pp.
   614-636.
4. [4] Max, E. E., Immunoglobulin Molecular Genetics in
   Fundamental Immunology, (W. E. Paul, New York, Raven Press,
   1984).
5. [5] Needham, J. A., History of Embryology, 1934.
6. [6] Plisko, A., and Gilchrest, B., Growth Factor Responsiveness
   of Co-cultured Human Fibroblasts Declines With Age, (J.
   Gerontol, 1983, 38, 3), pp. 513-518.
7. [7] Silverstain, A. M., The History of Immunology,
   (Ed. W. E. Paul, New York, Raven Press, 1984).
   
   
   
   * Dr. Kondalenko is with the Institute for Carcinogenesis
   Research, Russian National Cancer Research Center, Moscow,
   Russia.